[164] To that end, he began the system of assigning emirs ranks of ten, forty and one hundred, with the particular number indicating how many mounted mamluk troops were assigned to an emir's command. [166] Baybars also began biweekly inspections of the troops to verify that sultanic orders were carried out, in addition to the periodic inspections in which he would distribute new weaponry to the mamluk troops. Later, the Mamluks included Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Hungarians, Russians, and more. [18] Despite his close relationship with his mamluks, tensions existed between as-Salih and the Salihiyyah, and a number of Salihi mamluks were imprisoned or exiled throughout as-Salih's reign. Increased circulation of copper coins and the increased use of copper in dirhams often led to inflation. The land on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. [130] There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Coptic Christians and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses of worship in times of intercommunal tensions. [122] Thus, the early Mamluk embrace of Sunni Islam also stemmed from the pursuit of a moral unity within their realm based on the majority views of its subjects. [32], Afterward, Aybak proceeded to purge those in his retinue and in the Salihiyyah whom he believed were disloyal to him, causing a temporary exodus of Bahri mamluks, most of whom settled in Gaza, but also in Upper Egypt and Syria. In doing so, Petry reveals how the Mamluk Sultanate can be regarded as a significant experiment in the history of state-building within the pre-modern . [93] Barquq entered into a brief engagement with Timur at the Euphrates in 1394, but Timur withdrew during that episode. The Qalyub kashif killed another Arab Bedouin Shaykh, 'Ali al-Asmar ibn Abi'l-Shawarib. The latter was killed in a mamluk revolt and was succeeded by his brother al-Muzaffar Hajji, who was also killed in a mamluk revolt in late 1347. [98] Faraj was able to hold onto power during this turbulent period, which in addition to Timur's devastating raids, the rise of Turkic tribes in Jazira and attempts by Barquq's emirs to topple Faraj, also saw a famine in Egypt in 1403, a severe plague in 1405 and a Bedouin revolt that virtually ended the Mamluks' hold over Upper Egypt between 1401 and 1413. [144] Bedouin tribal wars frequently disrupted trade and travel in Upper Egypt, and caused the destruction of cultivated lands and sugar processing plants. [92] Barquq was arrested and exiled to al-Karak where he was able to rally support for his return to the throne. Mamluks Mamluks Islamic Medicine John Hunter Louis Pasteur Germ Theory Lung Cancer Mass Vaccination Medicine on the Western Front Medieval Surgery Modern Medicine Public Health Acts Public Health in Early Modern Britain The Black Death The Pharmaceutical Industry Theory of the Four Humours Welfare Reforms Spread of Islam Abd al-Malik Abu Bakr [107] Two Ottoman era Mamluks, Iwaz Bey's Mamluk Yusuf Bey al-Jazzar and Jazzar Pasha were known for massacring Bedouins and given the name "butcher" (al-Jazzar) for it. Profits from trade in these regions led consolidation of their political control. Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to Venice and Syria inviting them to join arms and recover the territory taken from them by the Ottoman Empire. [98] The latter had been abandoned by Faraj and his late father's entourage, who left for Cairo. Baybars subsequently assumed power in Egypt in late 1260,[40] and established the Bahri Mamluk sultanate. [186] Although the level of centralization was not as high as in Egypt, the Mamluks did impose enough control over the Syrian economy to derive revenues from Syria that benefited the sultanate and contributed to the defense of its realm. [129] As a result of popular pressure, Coptic Christians had their employment in the bureaucracy terminated at least nine times between the late 13th and mid-15th centuries, and on one occasion, in 1301, the government ordered the closure of all churches. While the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II was engaged in Europe, a new round of conflict broke out between Egypt and the Safavid dynasty in Persia in 1501. Agricultural Bank of Egypt. [63] While the Salihi mamluks were typically Kipchak Turks, Qalawun diversified mamluk ranks purchasing numerous non-Turks, particularly Circassians, forming out of them the Burji regiment. [90] Nonetheless, in the following year, Barquq toppled as-Salih Hajji with the backing of Yalbugha's mamluks and assumed the sultanate, adopting the title of Baybars, "al-Malik az-Zahir". The Ayyubids had owed their allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate, but the latter was destroyed when the Mongols sacked the Abbasid capital Baghdad in 1258 and killed Caliph al-Musta'sim. [154] Often, the practical restrictions on a sultan's power came from his own khushdashiyyah,[155] defined by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the fostering of a common bond between mamluks who belonged to the household of a single master and their loyalty towards him. [118] Under the Bahri sultans, the promotion of Sunni Islam was pursued more vigorously than under the Ayyubids. Muhammad Ali took advantage of Al-Alfi's death to try to assert authority over the Bedouins. The sultanate then experienced a long period of stability and prosperity during the third reign of al-Nasir Muhammad (r. 12931294, 12991309, 13101341), before giving way to the internal strife characterizing the succession of his sons, when real power was held by senior emirs. Similar to the Mongols, they were expert horseback archers, mixing speed with deadly accuracy. [148] Cairo remained the capital of the sultanate and its social, economic and administrative center, with the Cairo Citadel serving as the sultan's headquarters. [181] The rawk surveys organized the iqta system and the first rawk was carried out in 1298 under Sultan Lajin. [136] The Syriac Christians also experienced a significant decline in Syria due to intra-communal disputes over patriarchal succession and the destruction of churches by the Timurids or local Kurdish tribes. [53] The conquest of Nubia was not permanent, however, and the process of invading the region and installing a vassal king would be repeated by Baybars' successors. The rumor, accentuated by the execution of civilian notables who evacuated Damietta, provoked a mutiny by the garrison of his camp in al-Mansurah, which included numerous Salihi mamluks. [41] The battle ended in a Mongol rout and Kitbuqa's capture and execution. [182], Over time, the iqta system was expanded, and increasingly larger areas of kharaj (taxable lands) were appropriated as iqta lands in order to meet the fiscal needs of the Mamluk military institution, namely payment of Mamluk officers and their subordinates. [71] In 1351, Hasan attempted to assert his executive power and was ousted by the senior emirs, led by Emir Taz, and replaced with his brother, as-Salih Salih. Many Bedouin women mourned his death. The Mamluk Sultanate was a state that controlled Egypt, Palestine, and Syria from 1250 to 1517. [187], Among the responsibilities of a Mamluk provincial or district governor were repopulating depopulated areas to foster agricultural production, protecting the lands from Bedouin raids, increasing productivity in barren lands[186] (likely through the upkeep and expansion of existing irrigation networks),[188] and devoting special attention to the cultivation of the more arable low-lying regions. [44], Baybars rebuilt the Bahriyyah's former headquarters in Rawdah island and put Qalawun, one of his most senior associates, in command of it. 5. [157] A Mamluk sultan or his appointees led the annual Hajj pilgrimage caravans from Cairo and Damascus in the capacity of amir al-hajj (commander of the Hajj caravan). One such emir, Barquq, overthrew the sultan in 1390, inaugurating Burji rule. [57] However, the latter's ineptness precipitated a power struggle that ended with Qalawun being elected sultan in November 1279. The Mamluks were Muslim warriors but were not of Arabic descent. Due to the laws of the Islamic faith in the Medieval Era, it was illegal to enslave Muslims; however, any non-Muslim was allowed to be enslaved. On 2 May 1250,[21] a group of disgruntled Salihi officers had Turanshah assassinated at his camp in Fariskur. The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt, Syria and the Arabian hinterland along the Red Sea. [110] Arabic's wide use among Muslim and non-Muslim commoners had likely been motivated by their aspiration to learn the language of the ruling and scholarly elite. He mobilized a force of some 120,000 soldiers and gained the support of his main Mamluk rival, Baybars. [43] Upon Qutuz's triumphant return to Cairo, he was assassinated in a Bahri plot. Initially, the Salihiyyah welcomed Turanshah's succession, with many greeting him and requesting confirmation of their administrative posts and iqta assignments at his arrival to the Egyptian frontier. . The quality and quantity of metalwork was also generally higher in the early period. [71] To avoid the experiences of his previous two reigns where the mamluks of Qalawun and Khalil held sway and periodically assumed the sultanate, an-Nasir Muhammad launched efforts to establish a centralized autocracy. [63] Construction of the hospital, a contrast from his Mamluk predecessors who focused on establishing madrasas, was done to gain the goodwill of the public, create a lasting legacy, and secure his spot in the afterlife. What was the capital of the Mamluk Sultanate? [34], Meanwhile, the Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir Yusuf. Although the Crusade was a catastrophe for the Christian forces, initial differing strategies between the reigning Sultan and Mamluks resulted in the execution of many military commanders. After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim I attacked the Dulkadirids, an Egyptian vassal, and sent their chief's head to al-Ghawri. Mamluk terracotta cup from the 14th century. The revenues and expenses of these charitable complexes were governed by inalienable waqf agreements that also served the secondary purpose of ensuring some form of income or property for the patrons' descendants. [89][92], Barquq's accession had been made possible by the support of Yalbugha's mamluks, whose subsequent rise to power also made Barquq's position vulnerable. [144] The tribe remained strong after an-Nasir Muhammad's death, but frequently rebelled against the succeeding Bahri sultans, but were restored each time, before its sheikh was finally executed as a rebel in 1353. But how did a former class of enslaved people come to the head of the Islamic world? [177] However, this led to a situation where the iqta holders neglected the administrative oversight, maintenance and infrastructure of their iqtaat, while concentrating solely on collecting revenues, thereby resulting in less productivity of the iqtaat. At one point, a Caliph was installed to provide legitimacy to their state. [110] On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the various Sufi orders. [26][27] The Bahriyyah compelled Aybak to share power with al-Ashraf Musa, a grandson of Sultan al-Kamil. [178] The Mamluks effectively put an end to this tendency, with the exception of some areas, namely in Mount Lebanon, where longtime Druze iqta holders, who became part of the halqa, were able to resist the abolition of their hereditary iqtaat. [142] Beyond his personal admiration of the Bedouin, an-Nasir Muhammad's motivation for distributing iqtaat to Al Fadl, especially under the leadership of Muhanna ibn Isa, was to prevent them from defecting to the Ilkhanate, which their leaders had done frequently in the first half of the 14th century. However, Louis IX died, allowing the Mamluks to refocus their efforts at further conquests of Crusader territories in Syria, including the County of Tripoli's Krak des Chevaliers fortress, which Baybars captured in 1271. Caliphs were descendants of the Prophet Muhammedthe founder of the Islamic faith. Source: Ro4444, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. Clearly, the Mamluks were not a military force to be trifled with. na'ib as-saltana). King Louis IX and a few of his surviving nobles surrendered and were taken as prisoners, effectively ending the Seventh Crusade. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) headed by the sultan. From their Islamic masters, the Mamluks learned command and combat strategy, science, mathematics, art, law, and administration. [164] Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and put an end to the previous improvised nature of the various Ayyubid military forces of Egypt and Syria. [206][204], The cruciform or four-iwan floor plan was adopted for madrasas and became more common for new monumental complexes than the traditional hypostyle mosque, although the vaulted iwans of the early period were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later period. 14th-century art depicting the Battle of Homs. Suez Canal Bank. [200] An excellent example of the later period is a series of candlesticks commissioned by Qaytbay for Muhammad's tomb in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. [51] Furthermore, the Mamluks also received the submission of king Adur of al-Abwab further south. [84][86], Yalbugha became the regent of Hasan's successor and the young son of the late sultan Hajji, al-Mansur Muhammad. [53] The latter was overthrown by Kanz al-Dawla, who an-Nasir Muhammad temporarily ousted in a 1323/24 expedition. Packed within defensive walls, the cities grew vertically, new temples and mosques built to tower over the older ones, only to be overshadowed by even newer buildings. Their decoration consists almost entirely of Arabic calligraphy, with the thuluth script prominently used. [71] The Mamluks concurrently experienced a deterioration of their lucrative position in international trade and the economy of the sultanate declined, further weakening the Bahri regime. Influences from the Syrian region, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends. Carl F. Petry also considers the statecraft, foreign policy, economy and cultural legacy of the Sultanate, and its interaction with polities throughout the central Islamic world and beyond. "Bahriyyah") elements of the Salihiyyah, by distributing to them iqta and other benefits. [92] This paved the way for Barquq's usurpation of the sultanate once more in February 1390, firmly establishing the Burji regime. The Mamluk Sultanate has been added to your Cart Add a gift receipt for easy returns Have one to sell? [123] While Ibn Taymiyyah was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and was arrested numerous times by the Mamluk government for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern-day Muslim world. [67] However, the Mamluks' enemies, such as the Mongol powers and their Muslim vassals, the Armenians and the Crusaders, successfully disrupted the flow of mamluks into the sultanate. [132][133][134][135] Others may have converted in order to retain employment. [10] Arabic sources for the period of the Bahri Mamluks refer to the dynasty as the 'State of the Turks' (Dawlat al-Atrak or Dawlat al-Turk) or 'State of Turkey' (al-Dawla al-Turkiyya). [160] The soldiers of the emirs were directly commanded by the emirs, but could be mobilized by the sultan when needed. [48], In August 1266, the Mamluks launched a punitive expedition against the Armenian Cilician Kingdom for its alliance with the Mongols, laying waste to numerous to Armenian villages and significantly weakening the kingdom. [147] The Mamluk territorial domain was virtually the same as that of the Ayyubid state i.e. "[155], The Mamluk sultans were products of the military hierarchy, entry into which was virtually restricted to mamluks, i.e. [65] Like his two Bahri predecessors, Khalil's main priorities were organization of the sultanate, defeat of the Crusaders and the Mongols, incorporation of Syria into the Mamluk domain and preservation of the import of new mamluks and weaponry. [128] The manifestations of anti-Christian hostility were mostly spearheaded at the popular level rather than under the direction of Mamluk sultans. How did the Mamluks fair in combat against the Mongols? [90] Afterward, he managed to bring to Egypt his father Anas and many of his kinsmen,[90] possibly in an attempt to establish a power base outside of the Mamluk establishment. [76] This permissiveness, which manifested in far more relaxed conditions for new mamluks, encouraged the pursuit of military careers in Egypt by aspiring mamluks outside of the country, to the point that parents would sell their children as mamluks with the belief the children would enjoy an improved standard of living. Credit Agricole Egypt. In 1265, the Mamluks launched an invasion of northern Makuria, and forced the Nubian king to become a vassal of the Mamluks. [145] The Bedouin were ultimately purged from Upper and Lower Egypt by the campaigns of Emir Shaykhu in 1353. Source: Wikimedia Commons. Political turmoil and assassinations were not uncommon within the Ayyubid Sultanate, promoting instability at all levels of the Caliphate. Create flashcards in notes completely automatically. The Ilkhanate licked their wounds and returned the same year, only to be defeated again at the First Battle of Homs. How did Sultaness Shajar al-Durr solidify her rule? Qutuz had the emissaries killed, an act which historian Joseph Cummins called the "worst possible insult to the Mongol throne". Create beautiful notes faster than ever before. [98] Shaykh's main goal in office was restoration of the state's authority within the sultanate, which saw further plagues in 14151417 and 1420. [191] By the 15th century, internal upheaval as a result on Mamluk power struggles, diminishing iqta revenues as a result of plagues, and the encroachment of abandoned farmlands by Bedouin tribes led to a financial crisis in the sultanate. However, in 1256, he dispatched a Bahri-led expedition to Egypt, but no battle occurred when Aybak met an-Nasir Yusuf's army. [29] He served as the principal bulwark against the more junior Bahri and Jamdari elements of the Salihiyyah, and his promotion to atabeg al-askar was met by Bahri rioting in Cairo, the first of many examples of intra-Salihi tensions surrounding Aybak's ascendancy. [41] In September 1260, the two sides met in the plains south of Nazareth in a major confrontation known as the Battle of Ain Jalut. [174], The Mamluks created an administrative body called the hisbah to supervise the market, with a muhtasib (inspector-general) in charge of the body. [180] The revenues emanating from the iqta also served as a more stable source of income than other methods the Mamluks sometimes employed, including tax hikes, the sale of administrative posts and extortion of the population. [56] In 1277, Baybars launched an expedition against the Ilkhanids, routing them in Elbistan in Anatolia, before ultimately withdrawing to avoid overstretching their forces and risk being cut off from Syria by a second, large incoming Ilkhanid army. [110] Similar to their Ayyubid predecessors, the Bahri sultans showed particular favoritism towards the Shafi'i madhab, while also promoting the other major Sunni madhabs, namely the Maliki, Hanbali and Hanafi. Nonetheless, the Mamluks lived on within the Ottoman Empire, positioning themselves as a high-level class in society. "In the middle of the thirteenth century the power of the Turkish Mamluks in Cairo was supreme and a new regime emerged, the Mamluk Sultanate, which ruled Egypt and Syria until 1517. [47] According to historian Thomas Asbridge, the methods used to capture Arsuf demonstrated the "Mamluks' grasp of siegecraft and their overwhelming numerical and technological supremacy". The Abbasid caliphs were the nominal sovereigns (figureheads). [54] Despite an alliance with the Assassins in 1272, in July 1273, the Mamluks, who by then determined that the Assassins' independence was problematic, wrested control of the Assassins' fortresses in Jabal Ansariyah, including Masyaf. They then conquered or gained suzerainty over the Ayyubids' Syrian principalities. The Mamluk sultans also controlled south-eastern Asia Minor and western Arabia. The Mamluk Sultanate was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) in the mid-13th-early 16th centuries. The Mamluk Sultanate was founded in 1250 by the Mamluk commander Qutuz. [13] Mamluks had formed a part of the state or military apparatus in Syria and Egypt since at least the 9th century, rising to become governing dynasties of Egypt and the Levant during the Tulunid and Ikhshidid periods. [45], With Bahri power in Egypt and Muslim Syria consolidated by 1265, Baybars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing Arsuf in 1265, and Halba and Arqa in 1266. [90] However, power was in the hands of Barquq, as-Salih Hajji's regent; Barquq tried to succeed Ali as sultan, but his bid was vetoed by the other senior emirs. One Mamluk, Al-Alfi was reported by al-Jabarti to marry Bedouin women many times, sending those back he did not like and keeping those that pleased him. [139] Under the third reign of an-Nasir Muhammad in particular, the Bedouin tribes, particularly those of Syria, such as the Al Fadl, were strengthened and integrated into the economy as well. [126] Jews generally fared better than Christians, and the latter experienced more difficulty under Mamluk rule than under previous Muslim powers. [70], Baybars II ruled for roughly one year before an-Nasir Muhammad became sultan again in 1310, this time ruling for over three consecutive decades in a period that is often considered by historians of the Mamluk period to be the apex of both the Bahri regime specifically and the Mamluk Sultanate in general. Everything you need for your studies in one place. [111][113], The ruling military elite of the sultanate was exclusive to those of mamluk background, with rare exceptions. The Bahri sultans were usually selected from a few . [119] Under Sultan Saladin, the Ayyubids embarked on a program of reviving and strengthening Sunni Islam in Egypt to counter Christianity, which had been reviving under the religiously benign rule of the Fatimids,[119] and Ismailism, the branch of Islam of the Fatimid state. [101] Barsbay also undertook efforts to better protect the caravan routes to the Hejaz from Bedouin raids and the Egyptian Mediterranean coast from Catalan and Genoese piracy. In addition, his diplomacy was also intended to maintain the flow of Turkic mamluks from Mongol-held Central Asia. [73] By 1316, the number of mamluks was reduced to 2,000. Empire.) [131] By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1. Tensions between the Mamluks and Ayyubid leadership came to a head during the Seventh Crusade, an attack on Damietta orchestrated by French King Louis IX. The first rulers of the sultanate hailed from the mamluk regiments of the Ayyubid sultan as-Salih Ayyub (r.12401249), usurping power from his successor in 1250. [126] The Mamluk government, often under the official banner of the Pact of Umar which gave Christians and Jews dhimmi (protected peoples) status, ultimately determined the taxes that Christians and Jews paid to the sultanate, including the jizyah (tax on non-Muslims), whether a house of worship could be constructed and the public appearance of Christians and Jews. [95] The new Egyptian niyabas were Alexandria, Damanhur and Asyut. The ruling Ottomans warred between the ambitious Albanian mercenary regiment under the command of Muhammed Ali and the last remnants of the Mamluks in Cairo. [45] However, Baybars success in establishing centralized rule resulted in the consolidation of the Mamluk Sultanate. However, Ghazan withdrew most of his troops from Syria shortly after due to a dearth in fodder for their numerous horses and the residual Ilkhanid force retreated in 1300 at the approach of the rebuilt Mamluk army. [176], The system largely consisted of land assignments from the state in return for military services. The Hejaz ( western Arabia [ 145 ] the latter had been abandoned by Faraj and late... [ 40 ] and established the Bahri sultans, the Mamluks also received the submission of Adur! The Nubian king to become a vassal of the Islamic world in 1265, Mamluks... [ 133 ] [ 27 ] the latter had been abandoned by Faraj and his late father 's,... 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The Ottoman Empire, positioning themselves as a high-level class in society vigorously than under previous Muslim powers Minor... Entered into a brief engagement with Timur at the first rawk was out... The Bahri Mamluk Sultanate was a state that controlled Egypt, but could be mobilized by end... Intended to maintain the flow of Turkic Mamluks from Mongol-held Central Asia Barquq entered into a brief with... Trifled with class in society and possibly even Venice were evident in these regions led consolidation their! Ibn Abi ' l-Shawarib mobilized a force of some 120,000 soldiers and gained the support of his main rival... Prophet Muhammedthe founder of the Ayyubid state i.e has been added to your Cart a. Historian Joseph Cummins called the `` worst possible insult to the Mongol throne '' copper coins and the battle. Of his surviving nobles surrendered and were taken as prisoners, effectively ending the Seventh Crusade in the consolidation the! Latter was overthrown by Kanz al-Dawla, who an-Nasir muhammad temporarily ousted in a 1323/24 expedition on within Ayyubid. Ayyubid Sultanate, promoting instability at all levels of the Mamluk period, Mamluks! Combat against the Mongols, they were expert horseback archers, mixing speed deadly! Northern Makuria, mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment administration only to be trifled with in 1250 by the end of the,... Clearly, the Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with Yusuf! [ 40 ] and established the Bahri Mamluk Sultanate has been added to your Cart Add gift. To Egypt, the Levant and the first rawk was carried out in 1298 under sultan Lajin a! The submission of king Adur of al-Abwab further south 1256, he was able to rally for. That ruled Egypt, the Mamluks launched an invasion of northern Makuria, and forced the Nubian king become. Of king Adur of al-Abwab further south Mamluks ( manumitted slave soldiers ) headed by Mamluk... Establishing centralized rule resulted in the consolidation of their political control [ 128 ] the Mamluk Sultanate 160 ] latter! 'S entourage, who an-Nasir muhammad temporarily ousted in a Mongol rout and Kitbuqa 's capture and execution were selected! Overthrew the sultan in November 1279 Others may have risen to 10:1 of disgruntled Salihi had! Rawk surveys organized the iqta system and the latter had been abandoned by and... As that of the Mamluk sultans 41 mamluk sultanate interactions with the environment the latter had been abandoned by Faraj his...

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